In this lecture, we study subgroups. A nonempty subset $H$ of a group $G$ is called a subgroup of $G$ if $H$ itself forms a group relative to the operation $\cdot$ in $G$. If $H$ is a subgroup of $G$, we simply write $H\leq G$. Clearly $G\leq G$ and $\{e\}\leq G$. $G$ and $\{e\}$ are called trivial subgroups of $G$. Before we discuss subgroups further we need to go over some basic properties of a group as we need them.

Lemma. If $G$ is a group, then:

(a) Its identity element is unique.

(b) Each $a\in G$ has a unique inverse $a^{-1}\in G$.

(c) $\forall a\in G$, $(a^{-1})^{-1}=a$.

(d) $\forall a,b\in G$, $(ab)^{-1}=b^{-1}a^{-1}$.

The proof of this lemma is pretty much straightforward and is left to readers.

In order to show that a nonempty subset $H$ of a group $G$ is a subgroup we need to check:

1. $H$ is closed under $\cdot$, the operation in $G$. That is, $\forall a,b\in H$, $ab\in H$.

2. $e\in H$.

3. $\forall a\in H$, $a^{-1}\in H$.

Note that the associative law holds automatically. It turns out that there is a simpler criterion to check if a nonempty subset is a subgroup of a group.

Lemma. A nonempty subset $H\subset G$ is a subgroup of $G$ if and only if $\forall a,b\in H$, $ab^{-1}\in H$.

Proof. ($\Longrightarrow$) Clear.

($\Longleftarrow$) Let $a,b\in H$. Then by assumption, $aa^{-1}=e\in H$. Since $a,e\in H$, $ea^{-1}=a^{-1}\in H$. Since $b^{-1}\in H$, $a(b^{-1})^{-1}=ab\in H$. Therefore, $H$ is a subgroup of $G$.

Example. $\forall n\in\mathbb{N}\cup\{0\}$, $n\mathbb{Z}\leq(\mathbb{Z},+)$. Here, $n\mathbb{Z}=\{nx: x\in\mathbb{Z}\}$. In fact, they are all the subgroups of $(\mathbb{Z},+)$.

Definition. The cyclic subgroup of $G$ generated by $a\in G$ is $\{a^k: k\in\mathbb{Z}\}$. It is denoted by $\langle a\rangle$.

Example. Let $G$ be a group and $a\in G$. Let $C(a)=\{g\in G: ga=ag\}$. Then $C(a)\leq G$. $C(a)$ is called the centralizer of $a$ in $G$.

Example. Let $G$ be a group and let $Z(G)=\{z\in G: zx=xz\ \forall x\in G\}$. Then $Z(G)$ is a subgroup of $G$, called the center of $G$.

Example. Let $G$ be a group and $H\leq G$. $\forall a\in G$, $a^{-1}Ha=\{a^{-1}ha: h\in H\}$ is also a subgroup of $G$.

Lemma. Suppose that $(G,\cdot)$ is a group and $H$ is a finite nonempty subset of $H$. If $H$ is closed under $\cdot$, then $H$ is a subgroup of $G$.

Proof. Let $H=\{a_1,a_2,\cdots,a_n\}$. Then $\forall a\in H$, $aH=\{aa_1,aa_2,\cdots,aa_n\}\subset H$. On the other hand, if $aa_i=aa_j$ then $a_i=a_j$. So, $|aH|=|H|$. This implies that $aH=H$ and hence
\begin{align*}
a\in aH &\Longrightarrow a=aa_i\ \mbox{for some}\ i\\
&\Longrightarrow a_i=e\in H.
\end{align*}
Since $e\in aH$, $e=aa_j$ for some $j$ $\Longrightarrow$ $a_j=a^{-1}$.

Example. The symmetric group $S_3=\{1,(123),(132),(23),(13),(12)\}$ has 5 subgroups $\{1\}$, $\{1,(12)\}$, $\{1,(13)\}$, $\{1,(23)\}$, and $A_3=\{1,(123),(132)\}$. $A_3$ is called alternating group of degree 3. Cycles of length 2 such as (12), (13), (23) are called transpositions. Any permutation can be written as a product of either an even number of transpositions or an odd number of transpositions. If a permutation is a product of an even number of transpositions, the permutation is called an even permutation. If a permutation is a product of an odd number of transpositions, the permutation is called an odd permutation. The identity permutation 1 is an even permutation as $\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3\\
1 & 2 & 3 \end{pmatrix}$ can be written as (12)(21)(23)(32)(31)(13). The permutation (123) can be written as (12)(13). So, (123) is an even permutation. Similarly (132) is an even permutation as well. So it turns out that the alternating group $A_3$ is the set of all even permutations. In general, the set $A_n$ of all even permutations of $\{1,2,3,\cdots,n\}$ form a subgroup of the symmetric group $S_n$. Remember that $S_n$ has order $n!$. Since there are exactly the same number of even permutations and odd permutations, the alternating group $A_n$ of degree $n$ has order $\frac{n!}{2}$.

Example. $\mathrm{SL}(n,\mathbb{R})=\{A\in\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbb{R}): \det A=1\}$ is a subgroup of the general linear group $\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbb{R})$ of degree $n$. $\mathrm{SL}(n,\mathbb{R})$ is called the special linear group of degree $n$.

In the first lecture here, we defined a group. We have also seen an example of a group here, which is a symmetric group. In this lecture, we study some well-known examples of groups of finite and infinite orders. Recall that the order of a group os the number of elements in the group.

Examples of Groups

1. $(\mathbb{Z},+)$, $(\mathbb{Q},+)$, $(\mathbb{R},+)$, and $(\mathbb{C},+)$ are abelian groups of infinite order.
2. $(\mathbb{Q}\setminus\{0\},\cdot)$ is an abelian group of infinite order.
3. $(\mathbb{R}^+,\cdot)$ is an abelian group of infinite order. Here $\mathbb{R}^+$ denotes the set of all positive real numbers.
4. Let $E_n=\{e^{\frac{2k\pi i}{n}}: k=0,1,2,\cdots,n-1\}$. $e^{\frac{2k\pi i}{n}}$, $k=0,1,2,\cdots,n-1$ are the $n$-th roots of unity i.e. the zeros of $z^n=1$. $E_n$ forms an abelian group of order $n$. It is generated by a single element $e^{\frac{2\pi i}{n}}$. Such a group is called a cyclic group.

Definition. A group $G$ is said to be a finite group if it has a finite number of elements. The number of elements in $G$ is called the order of $G$ as mentioned previously and it is denoted by $|G|$ or $\mathrm{ord}(G)$. We use the notation $|G|$ for the order of the group $G$.

Example.Let $\mathbb{Z}_n=\{0,1,2,\cdots,n-1\}$. $\mathbb{Z}_n$ is the set of all possible remainders when an integer is divided by 2. The addition $+$ on $\mathbb{Z}_n$ is defined naturally as follows.
$$\begin{aligned}
\mathbb{Z}_2\\
\begin{array}{|c||c|c|}
\hline
+ & 0 & 1\\
\hline
\hline
0 & 0 & 1\\
\hline
1 & 1 & 0\\
\hline
\end{array}
\end{aligned}$$
$$\begin{aligned}
\mathbb{Z}_3\\
\begin{array}{|c||c|c|c|}
\hline
+ & 0 & 1 & 2\\
\hline
\hline
0 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
\hline
1 & 1 & 2 & 0\\
\hline
2 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
\hline
\end{array}
\end{aligned}$$
$(\mathbb{Z}_n,+)$ is an abelian group of order $n$. We will see later that the group $E_n$ and $\mathbb{Z}_n$ are indeed the same group.

Example. The set $M_{m\times n}(\mathbb{R})$ of all $m\times n$ matrices of real entries under matrix addition is an abelian group of infinite order.

Example. The set $\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbb{R})$ of alll $n\times n$ non-singular matrices of real entries under matrix multiplication is a non-abelian group of infinite order. $\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbb{R})$ is called the general linear group of degree $n$. It can be viewed as the set of all invertible linear transformations $T: \mathbb{R}^n\longrightarrow\mathbb{R}^n$ i.e. linear isomorphisms from $\mathbb{R}^n$ onto itself.

Example. [Klein four-group (Vierergruppe in German)]

Klein four-group

Let $V=\{e,a,b,c\}$ where $a$ is counterclockwise rotation of the rectangle in the picture about the $x$-axis by $180^\circ$, $b$ is counterclockwise rotation of the rectangle about the $y$-axis by $180^\circ$ and $c$ is counterclockwise rotation of the rectangle about the $z$-axis (the axis coming out of the origin toward you) by $180^\circ$. Then $a$, $b$ and $c$ satisfy the following relationship
\begin{align*}
a^2=b^2=c^2=e,\ ab&=ba=c,\ bc=cb=a,\\
ca&=ac=b.
\end{align*}
Here, $\cdot$ is the function composition i.e. successive application of rotations. By labling the vertices of the rectangle as 1, 2, 3, 4 as seen in the picture, we can define each rotation as a permutation of $\{1,2,3,4\}$.
\begin{align*}
e&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
1 & 2 & 3 & 4
\end{pmatrix},\ a=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
2 & 1 & 4 &3
\end{pmatrix},\\
b&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
4 & 3 & 2 & 1
\end{pmatrix},\ c=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
3 & 4 & 1 &2
\end{pmatrix}.
\end{align*}
For instance, we calculate $ab$:
\begin{align*}
ab&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
2 & 1 & 4 &3
\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
4 & 3 & 2 & 1
\end{pmatrix}\\
&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
2 & 1 & 4 &3
\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}
4 & 3 & 2 & 1\\
3 & 4 & 1 & 2
\end{pmatrix}\\
&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
3 & 4 & 1 &2
\end{pmatrix}\\
&=c.
\end{align*}

Example. [The $n$-th dihedral group $D_n$, $n\geq 3$]

Consider an equilateral triangle shown in the following picture.

Dihedral group D3

$\rho$ is counterclockwise rotation about the axis coming out of the origin by $\frac{360^\circ}{3}=120^\circ$ and $\mu_i$, $i=1,2,3$ is counterclockwise rotation about the axis of rotation through each vertex $i$ by $180^\circ$. As permutations of the vertices $\{1,2,3\}$, $\rho$ and $\mu_i$ , $i=1,2,3$ are given by
\begin{align*}
\rho&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3\\
2 & 3 & 1
\end{pmatrix},\ \mu_1=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3\\
1 & 3 & 2
\end{pmatrix}\\
\mu_2&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3\\
3 & 2 & 1
\end{pmatrix},\ \mu_3=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3\\
2 & 1 &3
\end{pmatrix}.
\end{align*}
$D_3=\{e,\rho,\rho^2,\mu_1,\mu_2,\mu_3\}$ is a group called the 3rd dihedral group. $$\mu_1\mu_2=\rho^2\ne\rho=\mu_2\mu_1.$$
So, we see that $D_3$ is not an abelian group. $D_3$ is the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle.

Now this time let us consider a square as shown in the following picture.

Dihedral group D4

$\rho$ is counterclockwise rotation about the $z$-axis coming out of the origin by $\frac{360^\circ}{4}=90^\circ$. $\mu_i$, $i=1,2$ are counterclockwise rotations about $y$-axis and $x$-axis, respectively by $180^\circ$. $\delta_i$, $i=1,2$ are counterclockwise rotations about the axis through the vertices 2 and 4 and the vertices through 1 and 3, respectively by $180^\circ$. As permutations of the vertices $\{1,2,3,4\}$, $\rho$, $\mu_i$ and $\delta_i$, $i=1,2$ are given by
\begin{align*}
\rho&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
2 & 3 & 4 & 1
\end{pmatrix},\\
\mu_1&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
2 & 1 & 4 & 3
\end{pmatrix},\ \mu_2=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
4 & 3 & 2 & 1
\end{pmatrix},\\
\delta_1&=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
3 & 2 & 1 & 4
\end{pmatrix},\ \delta_2=\begin{pmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 & 4\\
1 & 4 & 3 & 2
\end{pmatrix}.
\end{align*}
$D_4=\{e,\rho,\rho^2,\rho^3,\mu_1,\mu_2,\delta_1,\delta_2\}$ is the group of symmetries of a square, called the 4th dihedral group. It is also called the octic group. Note that $|D_n|=2n$, $n\geq 3$.

In this lecture, we study some basic number theory as it is needed to study group theory.

Let $\mathbb{Z}$ denote the set of integers. $\mathbb{Z}$ satisfies well-ordering principle, namely any non-empty set of nonnegative integers has a smallest member.

One of the most fundamental theorems regarding numbers is Euclid’s Algorithm. Although we will not discuss its proof, it can be proved using well-ordering principle.

Theorem. [Euclid’s Algorithm] If $m$ and $n$ are integers with $n>0$, then $\exists$ integers $q$ and $r$ with $0\leq r<n$ such that $m=qn+r$.

Euclid’s algorithm hints us how we can define the notion that one integer divides another.

Definition. Given $m\ne 0, n\in\mathbb{Z}$, we say $m$ divides $n$ and write $m|n$ if $n=cm$ for some $c\in\mathbb{Z}$.

Examples. $2|14$, $(-7)|14$, $4|(-16)$.

If $m|n$, we call $m$ a divisor or a factor of $n$, and $n$ a multiple of $m$. To indicate $m$ is not a divisor of $n$, we write $m\not|n$. For example, $3\not|5$.

Lemma. The following properties hold.

(a) $1|n$ $\forall n$.

(b) If $m\ne 0$ then $m|0$.

(c) If $m|n$ and $n|q$, then $m|q$.

(d) If $m|n$ and $m|q$ then $m|(\mu n+\nu q)$ $\forall \mu,\nu$.

(e) If $m|1$ then $m=\pm 1$.

(f) If $m|n$ and $n|m$ then $m=\pm n$.

Definition. Given $a,b$ (not both 0), their greatest common divisor (in short gcd) $c$ is defined by the following properties:

(a) $c>0$

(b) $c|a$ and $c|b$

(c) If $d|a$ and $d|b$ then $d|c$.

If $c$ is the gcd of $a$ and $b$, we write $c=(a,b)$.

$(24,9)=3$. Note that the gcd 3 can be written in terms of 24 and 9 as $3\cdot 9+1\cdot (-24)$ or $(-5)9+2\cdot 24$. In general, we have the following theorem holds.

Theorem. If $a,b$ are not both 0, their gcd exists uniquely. Moreover, $\exists m,n\in\mathbb{Z}$ s.t. $c=ma+nb$.

Now let us talk about how to find the gcd of two positive numbers $a$ and $b$. W.L.O.G. (Without Loss Of Generality), we may assume that $b<a$. Then by Euclid’s algorithm we have
$$a=bq+r,\ \mbox{where}\ 0\leq r<b.$$
Let $c=(a,b)$. Then $c|r$, so $c$ is a common divisor of $b$ and $r$. If $d$ is a common divisor of $b$ and $r$, it is also a common divisor of $a$ and $b$. This implies that $d\leq c$ and so $c=(b,r)$. Finding $(b,r)$ is of course easier because one of the numbers is smaller than before.

Example. [Finding GCD]
$$
\begin{aligned}
(100,28)&=(28,16)\ &(100&=28\cdot 3+16)\\
&=(16,12)\ &(28&=16\cdot 1+12)\\
&=(12,4)\ &(16&=12\cdot 1+14)\\
&=4.
\end{aligned}
$$
By working backward, we can also find integers $m$ and $n$ such that
$$4=m\cdot 100+n\cdot 28.$$
\begin{align*}
4&=16+12(-1)\\
&=16+(-1)[28+(-1)16]\\
&=(-1)28+2\cdot 16\\
&=(-1)28+2[100+(-3)28]\\
&=2\cdot 100+(-7)28.
\end{align*}
Therefore, $m=2$ and $n=-7$.

Definition. We say that $a$ and $b$ are relatively prime if $(a,b)=1$.

Theorem. The integers $a$ and $b$ are relatively prime if and only if $1=ma+nb$ for some $m$ and $n$.

Theorem. If $(a,b)=1$ and $a|bc$ then $a|c$.

Theorem. If $b$ and $c$ are both relatively prime to $a$, then $bc$ is also relatively prime to $a$.

Definition. A prime number, or shortly prime, is an integer $p>1$ such that $\forall a\in\mathbb{Z}$, either $p|a$ or $(p,a)=1$.

Suppose that $p$ is a prime as defined above and $p=ab$, where $1\leq a<p$. Then $p\not|a$ since $a<p$, so $(p,a)=1$. This implies that $p|b$. On the other hand, $b|p(=ab)$ and hence $p=b$ and $a=1$. So, the above definition coincides with the definition of a prime we are familiar with.

Theorem. If $p$ is a prime and $p|a_1a_2\cdots a_n$, then $p|a_i$ for some $i$ with $1\leq i\leq n$.

Proof. If $p|a_1$, we are done. If not, $(p,a_1)=1$ and so $p|a_2a_3\cdots a_n$. Continuing this, we see that $p|a_i$ for some $i$.

Regarding primes, we have the following theorems.

Theorem. If $n>1$, then either $n$ is a prime or the product of primes.

Theorem. [Unique Factorization Theorem] Given $n>1$, there is a unique way to write $n$ in the form $n=p_1^{a_1}p_2^{a_2}\cdots p_k^{a_k}$, where $p_1<p_2<\cdots<p_k$ are primes and the exponents $a_1,\cdots,a_k$ are all positive.

Theorem. [Euclid] There is an infinite number of primes.